Should Xenotransplantation Be Allowed?

Should Xenotransplantation Be Allowed?Xenotransplants have a long history in modern medicine. In late 1963 and early 1964, a team from Tulane University conduct by Keith Reemtsma, MD, did kidney transplants from chimpanzees into six patients, and one of them survived for nine months subsequent to the transplant. By 1974, including investigational surgeries performed by Thomas Starzl, MD, of University of Pittsburgh, around 20 patients had received xenotransplants. In this essay, I pull up stakes examine if xenotransplantation should be allowed.Xenotransplantation is the removal of cellular telephones, tissue or variety meat from one existence and then implanted into another(prenominal) electronic organism (Nuffield, 1996). A xenograft is a surgical graft of tissue surrounded by different species. The most liable source of transplantable organs is shortly the dogshit. A modern technique from molecular biology that is now apply to alter a donor organ is referred as gene ste rn technology. Specific genes are inactivated through this way. Hypothetically, gene knockout technique wad eliminate genes for antigens or other factors that induces rejection from zoology organs and tissues per creationently. Scientists are seek to make the human race tolerant transcription accept transplants of rat organs by genetic engineering to modify the pig. Research teams are arduous to delete specific pig genes or inserting human genes to modify pig cells into a less hostile matter to the immune system by accessible laboratory techniques. The manufacture of transgenic organs is an approach to shield animal organs from rejection by humans without need for immunosuppression. With the aid of transgenic technology, genes that whoremonger go on rejection are added. In transgenic modification, all all the animal cells that carry the foreign gene which is incorporated firmly into their genome expressing the protein, or only chosen cells contain these genes due to th e presence of promoters that are precise for a single cell type (Levinsky, 1996).There is an increase in act of patients with organ failures precisely an in commensurate sum of organs, creating a gap between organ supply and demand (Uncaged, 1999). Considering that this imbalance has resulted in rising waiting times and number of deaths of patients on waiting lists, xenotransplants should be allowed. (Levinsky, 1996)Other than that, researchers also have examine transplanting animal cells for therapeutic effect. Suzanne Ildstad, who is the director of Institute for Cellular Therapeutics in Louisville, Kentucky does bone-marrow transplantation research. In year 1995, she performed a baboon bone-marrow transplant into Jeff Getty, a man infected with HIV and therefore has AIDS. Bone marrow makes immune system cells. The main aim was to shield Getty from infection by replacing his collapsing immune system with a HIV-proof baboon immune system. Getty is still alive even though the ba boon cells functioned for merely two weeks (Agnew, 1999).Besides that, enough animals could be reared to supply sufficient organs and tissue to surmount the current shortage of human organs and tissue for transplantation. Pigs are the considered the liable candidates because they are highly tamed, have monumental amount of litters, grow rapidly to maturity and their organs are the illuminate size. They can be bred in sterile environments, and this decreases the chances of transmission of certain pig indispositions to humans. Successful xenotransplantation of genetically modified organs and tissue would stub out the need for the careful matching of the organ or tissue with the recipient, required in transplants between human beings in order to lessen rejection by the immune system. This predominantly benefits people who have difficulties finding compatible organs and tissue (Nuffield, 1996).The potential benefits are obvious, but the harm that it also brings cannot be overlooked . The human immune system consists of an intricate network of defense against disease and other foreign substances. When an organ from an animal that is evolutionarily remote is introduced, the human immune system shows a violent response. In hyperacute rejection, antibodies that appear pre-primed to attack tissues of another species convene the complement cascade, a range of proteins in the blood which attacks the interior walls of the transplants blood vessels, causing organ rejection within hours or even minutes. Patients died either due to graft rejection or because of infections resulting from the use of large doses of immunosuppressive drugs (Agnew, 1999). sentient being organs may come with unwanted viruses or infectious organisms. The firstly concern involves porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERVs) because they are able to infect human cells in-vitro and cannot be eliminated from the source animals genome. In the more notable research projects, trine classes of infectious type C PERVs have displayed its ability of infecting human cells. PERVs can infect both pig and human cell lines. This shows that PERVs is most promising to replicate in pig transplants and human cells in immunosuppressed xenograft recipients. Scientists believe that there is an intolerable threat to public health cerebrate with xenotransplantation because of the lack of alternatives to counter risks posed by PERVs (Uncaged, 1999).Moreover, there is a possibility of initiating a human epidemic. Zoonotic infections have the potential to amplify beyond the individual and into the public. The likelihood for xenogeneic infections to be transmitted through human populations poses a public health concern. Furthermore, the risk for health care workers who interacts with the xenograft recipient is higher than for the community at large (Uncaged, 1999).Finally, the use of animals as a source of xenotransplant organs will raise an ethical storm. The main concerns of bioethicists and anim al-rights advocates are whether humans have the moral right to work on animal organs to save human lives. The debate is further modify when we consider the suffering, exploitation and annihilation of animals (Nuffield, 1996).In conclusion, xenotransplantation can lap up the shortage of organ supply, minimise the need for careful matching of the organ or tissue with the recipient and also has therapeutic effect. On the contrary, it powerfulness be potentially harmful to patients through infection or rejection. Risks for zoonotic infections that can spread to the community are high and ethical issues such as exploitation of animals would be raised.(1000 words)

The Lord Of The Rings Trilogy Film Studies Essay

The master key Of The peal Trilogy moving- photo show Studies EssayThe human universes of caramel br maketasy is a part of either childs existence. From fairies to dragons, from wizards to goblins, the mind has never ceased to wander. As a young boy I took to this imaginary knowledge domain heartily, and I continue to do so work on date. Hence, I was non perplexityd when I found myself leaning to contendds The superior of the go as my topic for this paper.The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers and The Return of the King, delineate in the set of adjudges known as The cleric of the peal was scripted by the around popular author in history. (whiteness 6) The man that gave us Middle-earth, the territory of Sauron, Gandalf the greyness and Frodo Baggins of the Shire is n genius opposite than Professor lav Ronald Reuel Tolkien (1892-1973).I am discovering The professional of the go trilogy to help regard what it has contri neverthelessed to the movie fraternit y and the literary world. Clearly, I acquire been a Tolkien fan ever since I laid my hands on the first book of this epic trilogy. The rea parole I score chosen to study this is because I would give c be to try to unlock how a fictional epic saga uni get up The victor of the go croupe influence both these field on a global scale. I rattlingized briefly rich that this would be a ch entirelyenge, still afterward geting several literary texts by different academicians I was determined to give it a shot.J. R. R. Tolkien is known the world oer primarily for his achievements as a writer of illusion and the spring of The original of the peal. Peter Jackson (1961), on the other hand, who is a writer, producer, fake and screenwriter, has been involved in projects other than legerdemain which apply likewise win him praise. However, it was Jacksons transformation of a trio of books into a trio of movie theatres that won him meaningful appraisal. The journey of this tran sformation began in 1998.Jackson reveals that most fans of The captain of the Rings were probably not familiar with his earlier works and may thrust the impression that he popped out of nowhere and was suddenly directing this abundant movie-project. (Sibley vii) While researching on this topic I have ga on that pointd that most of his colleagues think of his original imaginativeness as his vastest asset. Having watched a a couple on of(prenominal) of Jacksons other films I butt say that he has a mark to showcase even an ordinary story in a re eithery extraordinary way.As mentivirtuosod in Studying the Event Film The Lord of the Rings, Jackson first mentions to Miramax of his interest in The Lord of the Rings in 1995. By July of 1998 Miramax decides to make maven film out of The Lord of the Rings after which Jackson goes on to run into invigorated Line who agrees on a troika part film. Shooting for the movie starts the following course of instruction, and by the kibos h of 2003 Tolkiens most popular The Lord of the Rings is do gettable to the film audience in totality. (Margolis et al xix-xx)Jackson took to Tolkiens Middle-earth, in all its glamour, very passionately, even obsessively. He says that this was mainly the reason behind why Jackson kept pushing his filmmaking skills to a level high enough to direct such an epic drama. His goal was to make Middle-earth look like it was shot on location (Mathijs and Pomerance 2). As t doddery to Sibley, Jackson confessed that it took him around disco biscuit years of making films and learning enough close film g everyplacenance to give him the skill base he needed to tackle this extra project, apart from the twenty years working on amateur projects. (viii)Tolkiens The Lord of the Rings was the longest work of Fantasy ever published. (White 89) He began maturation The Fellowship of the Ring soon after The Hobbit in 1937, but it was not until 1954 that he published this first part of The Lord of the Rings. Here, Frodo Baggins, the hobbit, sets out on his quest to destroy the all-powerful One Ring with wizard Gandalf the Grey as his guide, along with a protective sept drawn from discordant Middle-earth races. The book took the world by storm and had mickle from all climb on groups spellbound.In the Foreward section of this first book Tolkien writes, Those who had asked for more information virtually Hobbits eventually got it, but they had to wait a long time for the base of The Lord of the Rings went on at intervals during the years 1936 to 1949, a stop in which I had somewhat(prenominal) duties that I did not neglect and m whatever other interests as a learner and teacher that a fullly deal heedless me. (5) White expresses this development as a transition from a umbr maturateous sequel into an independent and full-blown creation in which, he says, the drive was packed with de places and retrogressive decisions (171).The second book in The Lord of the Rings se ries, The Two Towers, was also published in 1954, a few months after the first. The tale continues with how each member of the crackship fared after the breaking of their fellowship, until the orgasm of the great Darkness and the outbreak of the warfare of the Ring (Tolkien 10). The third and uttermost(a) part of the series was named The Return of the King which was first published in October, 1955. It is quite possible that Tolkien thought this name appropriate since the saga ends with Aragorn ruling over Gondor, rightfully crowning him King. Tolkien ends this grand narrative with good winning over loathsomeness, revealing the opposing strategies of Gandalf and Sauron (The Dark Lord of Mordor), until the final catastrophe and the end of the great darkness. (Tolkien 13)The concept of Middle-earth is one of awe. Being a philologist and a Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford University J. R. R. Tolkien had all-embracing knowledge of languages, ancient cultusures and mythology. His fantastic mind led him to create the world of Middle-earth which would ultimately help plunge the science fiction and fantasy cultural revolution that has swept westward civilization since the 1960s. (Martinez) In his article, The World of Middle Earth, Martinez writes that the name Middle-earth is itself an ancient antiquated name for the world of Men.This world created by Tolkien was as real and knotty as our own. Tolkien treasured to make his imaginary world so persuade that the reader could conceptualise in it so much as to remember it as actual history. For this reason he involved himself in map-making, creating fadeless charts marking dates and events, and even went to the fulfilment of creating his many invented languages. (Foster 1) He carefully manifested a framework of familiar geography and climate, beasts and birds enabling the reader to walk finished any Middle-earth landscape with a security of recognition that woos him on to believe in everything that happ ens. (Kocher 2) So much was his dedication for perfecting familiarity that Tolkien took the trouble of naming supernal bodies such as the Great Bear as The Sickle, and planet mar as Red Borgil. (Kocher 7)For instance, if we were to take the hobbits into consideration, the prologue of The Lord of the Rings informs the reader that they are our irrelevant relatives even though the exact nature of this blood kingship is illogical in time. Middle-earth, the land of hobbits, men and manlike creatures, among many others, is our Earth as it was long ago. The Shire has been set forth as a small but beautiful and fruitful land, beloved by its inhabitants (the hobbits), where an extensive agricultural musical arrangement thrives avoiding the ruthless ways of an industrial economy. Kocher compares the Shire, which is on the North-West of the Old World, to northwest Europe primarily because of its climate and skies, and farmland and valleys. (4)Irrespective of whether one is a fantasy genre fan or not, no one mountain deny that Tolkien is Hobbit forming. (White 224) I first read The Fellowship of the Ring at age fifteen, and I have unknowingly read all the three hoi pollois several times. With every read of Tolkiens The Lord of the Rings I find myself more late involved in his mythopoesis (Hart and Khovacs 26), a term often defined as literary myth. This mythopoeia, according to Tolkien, is easiest to attain using the fantasy/fairy tale (Hart and Khovacs 38) genre.The Lord of the Rings was readily adopted by the hippies in the 1960s. If one delves into this further one can comment that it is not difficult to see how Tolkien had a study influence on them. As White writes, It is set in an alternative reality in which orthodox religion plays no part, where magic makes things happen. (224) This book had a publicity and attraction beyond hippies. It was read by people from all age brackets, from all split of the world, and from different cultural sterngrounds. Today, if one were to type the delivery Tolkien or The Lord of the Rings into a search engine, at to the lowest degree half a million sites would be displayed. Therefore, it is no surprise that Tolkiens fantasy has spawned host of imitators.Soon after The Lord of the Rings was made on tap(predicate) to the world, Tolkien found himself at the centre of all things media, as a cult figure he was somewhat of a guru. He received p destination from world famous personalities including Members of Parliament. White notes that even though Tolkien was delighted by the popularity of his work he was more than a little disturbed by the reactions of some of his readers. He was stunned to hear that a ten year anile boy who played Frodo in a dramatization of The Lord of the Rings could not come out of character for a month. (225)Jacksons film version of this classic series has also held wide acclaim in both, the popular and the academic eye. As Kellner states, The Lord of the Rings trilogy has been the most popular, acclaimed, and fetishized film cycle of the Third Millennium and has intensified and expanded Tolkien readership for the falsehoods that are the floor of the cinematic epic, while generating a devoted following for the films. (Mathijs and Pomerance 17)Digital engineering is at the heart of The Lord of the Rings, and it was this technological advancement that was a major factor in its success. As mentioned in Studying the Event Film The Lord of the Rings, various software developments such as the FastSCAN technology and large (Multiple Agent Simulation System in Virtual Environment) have made it easier to produce films on the scale of The Lord of the Rings. (3)Almost as soon as Jackson released The Fellowship of the Ring, gaming companies released high graphic idiot box games based on the film. rangeers, DVDs, music CDs, toys and such sold extensively. Even the New Zealand government, once it got on board The Lord of the Rings project, was determined to open as much economic benefit as possible from its investment. (Margolis et al 10) For example, Air New Zealand painted various characters from the films on their planes and New Zealand Post issued both international and domestic stamps depicting places as they appeared in the films. (Margolis et al 10)Not only is The Lord of the Rings an entertainment marvel, it is also being taught as a subject in universities all around the world. I, for one, have selected The Lord of the Rings as my academic paper. There are ever-living books, articles, journals and online databases devoted to this topic. Given the bubbling global fan discourse and the permeating conviction that Jackson has accomplished something magnificent and significant, it is not a surprise that much of The Lord of the Rings has become the subject of academic literary criticism.National Geographic has made an attempt to link The Lord of the Rings to American frontier mythology and to presidents like Franklin Delano Roosevelt. As Mathijs and Pomerance have noted, an academic word list for a selected group of cultural studies scholars consisted of all things gendered, ethnic, classed, religious, ideological and methodological in reading the trilogy. (3-4) As mentioned earlier, Tolkien wanted to associate his fantasy world with our own. For this purpose, it has led me to believe that those that write about The Lord of the Rings books and/or films attempt to make a connection surrounded by The Lord of the Rings and world events.In recent times links have also been made between The Lord of the Rings film texts and contemporary political concerns like totalitarianism, family, ecology, technology, patriarchy, and war and terror. (Mathijs and Pomerance 7) A quick browsing through of such articles/journals will lead you to see this link a departure from a world based on craftsmanship, and an eco-friendly environment, to a world based on high technology procedures, industrial pollution, and new divisions of lab our and corrupt governments.As Isaacs writes, Tolkiens popularity was not fostered by the mass media it grew from appeals of his work itself and was simply reported in the media. His work did not involve any promotion, nor was there a little bandwagon either. (1) The initial reviewers were full of praise but they also had a percentage of contradictions and questions, specifically about genre. Over the years subsequent reviewers kept the praises access and began answering some of the questions. I would think that answering some of the grassroots questions would help understand Tolkiens take on matters such as genre, influences, relationships, and the like.Humphrey carpenter reveals that Tolkien regarded himself as a discoverer of legend and not as an artificer of story. (Nitzsche 1) Selling over a 100 million copies worldwide (..) The Lord of the Rings volume is still unfalteringly demanded in the market. However, some critics have been very vocal to dismiss this volume as bald erdash, juvenile trash (Shippey 307) and confidently stated that this is not a work which many adults will read more than once.Jackson too has had both positive and negative responses to his trilogy. Andrew OHehir says that, Tolkiens mournful, somber tone was captured with authoritative vigour in the films. Hetranslated the best-loved fantasy novel of our age into a commanding screen adventure, one with a moxie of human terror and danger and grit under its nails, one that makes desolate Potter andLuke Skywalker look like the feeble wraiths they are. (136)All of the above is a brief introduction to the different areas that I will be elaborating on, in context of The Lord of the Rings. I hope to be able to make out and answer some questions that I havehad regarding Middle-earth and its elements.Born on the tertiary of January, 1892 in Bloemfontein, South Africa, John Ronald Reuel Tolkien was the first child and the elder son of English parents Arthur Reuel Tolkien, a banker, and MabelSuffield Tolkien. (Crabbe 3) Growing up sturdy and handsome, with light tomentum cerebri and blue eyes, Ronald (as he was then most popularly called) was eer an devouring(a) reader who liked reading mostlytales and myths of American Indians and of fairy tales.For him, fantasies about dragons and ogres became more distinctive as he read. His mother introduced him to many of the great childrens books of the day like Alice in Wonderland, The PiedPiper and Treasure Island. (White 20) nether his mothers guidance he also developed a distinctive port of handwriting that stayed with him throughout his life, ultimately cultivating his talent indrawing. As Crabbe notes, his microscopic lettering and talent for drawing, especially landscapes, contributed to The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings when he began to bedeck his fictions. (5)In 1894, Tolkien had company as mother Mabel gave birth to a rape boy they named Hilary Arthur Reuel Tolkien. By the time Hilary was three the brothers were playing in the fields thatsurrounded the house, going on long adventurous walks. Without a draw figure the only male company they had was each other, and not astonishingly became exceptionally close to theirmother. The three Tolkiens thus shared an unusually strong bond. It is noted that the boys fantasized that a local farmer was an evil wizard who wanted to turn this peaceful English countrysideinto a theme park where evil wizards such as himself struggled for control of the land. The Tolkien brothers would wander into the local woods which they called unlike lands to protect the blameless against the bad. (White 19)By the age of four, Tolkien entered a new mannikin in life. This was caused due to the family shifting homes from Bloemfontein to Birmingham, England, one of the British Empires powerhousesof the time. The wilderness and the distant horizon were replaced by an industrial jungle, terraced houses, concrete backyards and smoke of the local factories. (White 18) Tolkien was broughtup mostly in a quiet English village called Sarehole. This friendly, old fashioned and pleasant pastoral village with rural inhabitants helped shaped Tolkiens vision of the Shire and its inhabitants.One of the most tragic events in Tolkiens childhood was the devastation of his mother, in the fall of 1904, before he was twelve. He never forgave his relatives for direct his mother to an earlygrave and was convinced that their rejection of his mothers conversion to the Catholic church building worsened her illness. He was sure that she died young because of this mental pain. Nonetheless,he cute her memory and never forgot that she had introduced him to his Roman Catholic religious credence and to the study of languages, both of which, in very different ways sustained himall his life. (Stanton 3)There is a hidden message that I believe Tolkien was severe to address in The Lord of the Rings. In The Fellowship of the Ring, we read that the fellowship begins its mis sion on 25 December. Bythe third part of the volume we gather that the day Frodo succeeds in destroying the ring is 25 March. According to old English tradition we know that 25 December was the date when messiahChrist was born, and 25 March was the date of the first Good Friday (Christs crucifixion). Tolkien maintains that there is no specific Christianity in his fiction writings but one can sense that theChristian spirit is everywhere.One of Tolkiens friend state that Tolkien was a very strict Roman Catholic, old fashioned and orthodox. As White writes, He habitually referred to Christ as Our Lord and have anunshakable conviction in the power of prayer, believing that he had been given(p) stories after praying and that prayers had cured members of his family when they were ill. (208) Along withreligion, his study of ancient languages made him value the concept of myth and culture. With this realization, he could now start to build his own mythology to describe a fictional coutu re,an entire fictional universe, the roots of which lay in the languages of the different people of his fantasy realm.A further inducing to the creation of Middle-earth and its myths was given by the experience of war. During his lifetime, Tolkien witnessed the two greatest wars. For Tolkien being young,brilliant, and studying languages and books seemed like paradise, but this was shattered by the outbreak of war. He was still an Oxford undergraduate when war was declared against Germany.In 1916, during World War I, Tolkien served as a signalling officer in the battle of the Somme. (Rosebury 125-6)Life on the Somme was an endless struggle of day break attacks, night marches and expiry by German machine guns. Corpses lay everywhere, stinking, mutilated or disfigured, with partscompletely blown away. As Crabbe states, World War I came to typify the difference between the old ways and the modern, between the innocent and the ironic, between youthful hopeand vigor and exhausted accep tance. (15) However it was not war alone that educated Tolkien, for he had learnt at his mothers death that the world can be tragic.Tolkien writes in the Foreward section of The Lord of the Rings, One has indeed in person to come under the shadow of war to feel fully its oppression.By 1918 all but one of my closefriends were dead. (7) Tolkiens generation had to pay a terrible cost during World War I, and maybe it is for this reason that The Lord of the Rings is somewhat of an anti-war story, among themany other kind of story it is. He agrees that war was an essential part of the plot but it did not wait any allegorical significance or contemporary political reference whatsoever.It is necessary to avoid, as Stanton suggests, allegorical readings of The Lord of the Rings Mordor is not Nazi Germany, Tom Bombadils little province is not Switzerland, and so on. (5) In 1945,Tolkien described World War II as the first War of the Machines, noting that it go forth everyone poorer, many m aimed and millions dead, where only one thing triumphant the Machines. On theother hand, he described World War I as a war of manpower against machines where the old world was fighting against the new. (Garth 190-1) legion(predicate) writers have described Tolkien as having astrong anti-modernist attitude. His son, Christopher Tolkien mentioned that, He dislike the modern world,. (White 208)It is important to keep in mind that Tolkien was a gravid man before the onset of World War I. His thoughts and ideas were products, to some extent of late Victorian culture. They were formedin an age which was more innocent than ours, and certainly more hopeful. As quoted in Hobbits, Elves, and Wizards Exploring the Wonders and Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkiens The Lord of the RingsTolkien emphasizes that I was born in 1892 and lived.in the Shire in a pre-mechanical age. (Stanton 4)As the firstborn World War ended and life gained normalcy, Tolkien and wife Edith Bratt were parents of a son they nam ed John, and Tolkien secured his first civilian job as a junior editor on theOxford English Dictionary (OED) project in 1919. A couple of years later in 1921 Tolkien legitimate a position as Reader of English Language at the University of Leeds. (Crabbe 16) Soon again in1925 Tolkien returned to Oxford, and the year that followed introduced him to another medievalist, C.S. Lewis, most famously known for writing The Chronicles of Narnia, who intimatelyimmediately became an important source of friendship, stability, and intellectual and creative stimulus for Tolkien. (Crabbe 19)Tolkien and Lewis were good friends for many years, even though they grew apart in the later years of Lewiss life. Tolkien always credited Lewiss faith in the worth of The Lord of the Rings,and he maintained that it was due to his insistence that Tolkien eventually completed the work. As fellow members of the Inklings they met weekly at a pub to drink beer, and read andcriticize, among other things, one anoth ers unpublished works. It was these friendly, supportive gatherings that Tolkien absorbed the outlines of social organizations that comprisedhis sense of good in his fantasies.Throughout Tolkiens life, he was drawn into clubs groups of men who had similar interests and talents. The all-male order of magnitude of King Edward School provided Tolkien the first clubbyand likeable fellowships that became an important reflection in Tolkiens life and in his fictions. However, of all the clubs to which Tolkien ever belonged, the Tea company and Barrovian Society (TCBS)was the most important in terms of the effect on his literary imagination. (Crabbe 10)Tolkien and Lewis had a lot of common conceptions and a few differences in opinion. Both agree that Christianity was important, though one was Anglican and the other Catholic. They agreedthat myth was important, though one called it myth and other called it faery. They agreed that literary study was important, though one was literature and the other was language. Theyregarded news as something fit to be ignored, arguing that the only truth can be found in literature. Here, I would like to particularly honour Tolkiens form of story-telling because of his ownprofound faith in story as a vehicle of truth.Purtill notes that one cannot be certain about whether Tolkien would attempt to picture a life after death in fiction, but he expressed a strong dislike for Lewiss book, Letters to Malcolm, inwhich Lewis presents some nonfictional speculations on life after death. (133) Also, in Tolkiens work we have pure fantasy, where magic works directly by wizards and the likes, and not bymeans of spirits. In Lewiss fantasy however, we have a fully animist view, where he creates disembodied spirits with some characteristics of angels and some of Neoplatonic Intelligences.(Purtill 107)Many people have made opinions or guesses concerning the meaning and motives of The Lord of the Rings. To this, Tolkien informs us that the select mot ive was the desire of a story-teller totry his hand at a lengthy story that would hold the readers attention, amuse them, delight them, excite them or deeply move them. He says that he does not have any intention to put forwardany inner meaning or message through the tale.In a biographical sketch of Tolkien, White notes that in order for Tolkien to create Middle-earth and its legend he needed more than language excellence. One, he needed the sort ofimagination that could mould languages and expatriation characters through the fictional realm he created. Two, he needed to be constant with his writing, and three, he needed a reason to do it.(81) Tolkien wanted to create a sort of mythology for England since there had not been any precedent mythical tale attached to the land. He was a patriot and he felt that producing and epic wasnot only something he could do but something he was trained to do.Tolkien identified two types of readers the fidelis, the self-identified Christian believ er, and the fainthearted which could be easily misinterpreted as the weak and timid reader. He wantedto steer the latter type of reader, which he considered not as weak, but as that type of reader who has no theistic faith, or has lost what faith he or she had. Tolkien wanted to reach thisgroup by the ethereal power and grandeur of the story. (Rutledge 3)Tolkiens view of poetry was formed by his extensive knowledge of Old English literature, Latin and Greek poetry, Old Norse sagas. He wanted to adapt his medieval muse to the Victorian elbow room but could not find a contemporary model that sounded profuse enough for his purposes. Therefore, The Lord of the Rings evolved as a result of his unfitness to adjust to the radicalrenewal of poetic tradition in the 20th century. (Giddings 140)Readers plan of attack The Lord of the Rings from different directions. Some value it as a treasure chest of imaginative languages, while others see it in terms of myth some view it as a tediousr eligious statement, and others view it as a modern-day version of expansive fantasy. I found that the story drew me in instantly, and I fatigued many hours in Middle-earth, and like I mentionedearlier, I have been back many times since.Although Tolkien has voiced his opinion on illustration expression I cordially dislike allegory in all its manifestations, and always have done since I grew old and wary enough to line up its presence (asqtd. in Shippey 161), he has in fact regarded allegory as a legitimate critical tool, a means to clarify critical stands, throughout his career. Helms uses the 1936 Beowulf lecture to explain howTolkien attempted allegory to illustrate what he is about as critic. (109) In fact, Tolkien turned to allegory to make what deeply important personal statements about the genre were for him offantasy.Of all the characters in The Lord of the Rings, Harvey writes that hobbits represented the archetypal pre-Industrial Revolution Englishmen with simple needs, goals, and a basic approach to life.(114) Tolkien has reacted against the idea that The Lord of the Rings is an allegory, and it is not. That is why Tolkien dismissed those who viewed this saga as an allegory of World War II. Firstly, hepoints out that he started work on it long before the doom of 1939 had yet come upon the world. Secondly, the relevancy of equals signs were missing. Shippey suggests that one could saythat the Ring = nuclear weapons, the coalition of Rohan, Gondor and the Shire (etc.) = the Allied powers, Mordor = the axis vertebra powers, all of which has some general plausibility. (163) Here, hegoes on to question what the goal of the Ring and the refusal to use it equal.Tolkien says that many confuse applicability with allegory, but one resides in the freedom of the reader and the other in the proposed domination of the author. (Tolkien 7) We can then seethat when he thinks of allegory, he is thinking of philosophy or fiction clad as a story, in which each per son and/or event stands for a specific idea/fact of the real world. It must be noted herethat if used in their priggish place, either advancing an argument or else constructing brief and personal fables, Tolkien accepted them readily.At the age of eighty one, after a long and originative career spent largely in literary study, writing and teaching, Tolkien died on September 2, 1973 in the English townof Bournemouth. (Stanton 3)

Teaching maths

Teaching mathsIntroductionMathematics is an essential break open of our world and an important life skill. In our society today, we argon bombarded by actous data that requires us to record, sort and organize. We need to exercise mathematics non only at our work places, but withal in our fooling life. Even simple daily tasks wish well fashioning a leveraging or financial recording at home needs numeric skill. By having a strong infering of mathematics, it will open doors to a promising c atomic number 18er and a productive future (The depicted object Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2004). premature childhood education sets the foundation upon which future conducting is built. Before children preface school, many an(prenominal) of them develop number and geometric abilities homogeneous counting objects and making shapes (Clements, 2001). Children develop informal numerical acquaintance that is complex and sometimes sophisticate (Clements, 2001). During preschool years, childrens brains undergo signifi keistert development as their coning and baffle affect their brain structure. Their brains grow most as a terminus of complex activities and not just from simple tasks. Preschoolers are a extra gathering and therefore, it is important to have development every last(predicate)y comprise away activities for them (Clements, 2001). In wander to attention children with mathematics, inculcateers need to first understand how they learn mathematics. It is in addition all important(p) to find out the difficulties they may face during the learning process so that Teachers keister practice appropriate methods to help them.How children learn mathematics and their plan developmentAt a very early age, children start to award their friendship of mathematics. Children are curious well-nigh their world and this leads them to explore the notion of mathematics (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000). In the ordinary environment, they experience everyday ma thematics involving topics like space, shape, convening, number and number operations (Ginsburg, Lee Boyd, n.d.) . Childrens play and provoke are the sources of their first mathematical experiences (Clements, 2001). They need diametrical kinds of concrete literal(a)s to insure and the time to play in beau monde to construct mathematical concepts (Smith, 1997). For instance, when play with auction blocks, children spend a lot of time figuring out which block is higher than the former(a). The blocks in addition help the children to further explore mathematical concepts much(prenominal) as shapes and symmetries (Ginsburg et al., n.d.) . As children manipulate materials, their action forces some thinking and reaction. Materials leave children with a wide range of stakes and abilities to enjoy success (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000). Interaction with other(a)s is another(prenominal)(prenominal) way that children learn mathematics. by means of interaction with other children, they are adapted to question their own view of the world and adjust accordingly. numeric group project is an example that provides opportunities for social interaction and rouse be a strategy for mathematics learning. During project work, children support share several(predicate) ideas, discuss turn up and argue about their suggestions. Children talk and listen to each other when playing and working. They naturally talk about what they are doing. Use of the row is essential to learning about mathematical ideas and procedures (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000). Besides interacting with others, actors line also helps children in learning mathematics because it aids in organizing their thinking and experiences. Children are equal to learn new concepts better when they have the ability to break mathematical ideas and relationships (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000).The theory of Piaget and Vygotsky gives teachers information about childrens course of mathematical concept development and aid in developmentally appropriate statement. Piaget proposed a four- phase angle theory of cognitive development (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000). From zero to two years old, it is called the sensorimotor period. Mathematical concepts are believed to develop as children storage area, touch or trigger objects of different sizes and shapes. Classification skills are also believed to develop during this period of time. Preoperational stage is from two to seven or eight years old. During this period, children learn about conservation concept and they develop the understanding that objects remain the identical no matter how they are changed in form or arranged in different ways. They acquire language rapidly and are equal to(p) to use symbols to represent real objects. cover operations period is from seven to cardinal or twelve years old. As they think, they still need to dole out and manipulate objects. However, they start to become much independent from the manipulation of objects. They female genitals think about classes, seriation and numbers (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000).Vygotskys theory consists of natural and heathenish development (Smith, 1997). Natural development influences learning. Cultural development occurs when children interact with others and language is repaird through interaction. He believed that when children are in their zone of proximal development, learning get winds place. With the help of teachers and peers, they layabout achieve certain tasks. He also believed that in early learning scaffolding is essential to grasp a task. Later on, the support is slowly reduced in order for the children to master the skill independently (Smith, 1997).Role of teachers in helping children learn mathematicsTeachers play an important fictional character in helping children learn mathematics. First of all, the teacher should plan the learning environment in such a way that it is beneficial to mathematical explorations. For example, the classroom should contai n a variety of objects related to numbers and concrete materials like blocks and manipulatives (Clements, 2001). Classrooms bath also be numbered (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000). This will help the children learn mathematical concepts through their play. During their play, teachers must observe and deputise when necessary to create teachable moments. But when should teachers intervene? A useful way is to observe whether mathematical thinking is develop or already installed in children. If the thinking is developing, the teacher can take notes and discuss about the experience after they finished playing. On the other hand, if the thinking is installed, the teacher can discuss and clarify the ideas with the children. In this way, the children can clarify their thinking and extend the idea (Clements, 2001). Teachers can work with the children on group projects so that they can be involved in different mathematical ideas like measurements, numbers, space and so on (Ginsburg et al., n.d.). Developmentally appropriate computer programme is an essential part of developing mathematical knowledge. A curriculum offers planned activities and assumes that mathematics does not need to be always integrated with other activities, but it can also be an interesting substance on its own (Ginsburg et al., n.d.). It strengthens childrens geometric and number knowledge (Clements, 2001). both(prenominal) children may have difficulty in learning mathematics and it is the teachers role to help them cope with the problem. Some children have math anxiety and it has a negative influence on the childrens academic performance (Mazzocco, 2007). Others may have inability to estimate quantity (ScienceDaily, 2013) and spatial difficulty (Mazzocco, 2007). In order to help these children in mathematics, teachers can use different methods to improve the learning experiences. For instance, in order to help children with math anxiety, teachers can call forth the primary numerical and spatial pr ocessing. This can be done both in school as well as collaboration with parents. investigate shows that the quality of numerical and spatial talk by parents is related to the childrens math and spatial skills. Hence, the parents can engage the children in daily activities that are related to math. This will help the children to have more basic knowledge of mathematics when they come to school and reduce the anxiety in them (Beilock Willingham, 2014). grim group learning is another strategy that the teachers can use to help those children that has difficulties. Small group is where teachers plan the materials and lessons based on the childrens interest and their level of development. Teachers can scaffold each childs learning. As children gain confidence in their abilities, they are more willing to take up new challenges. Small group also allows teachers to observe each child in the group through daily interactions and understand more about their abilities and interests (HighScope Educational Research Foundation, 2011). Integrated curriculum is another approach to enhance the childrens learning in mathematics. It emphasizes the holistic development of the child- physical, social, emotional, bright and aesthetic development. Stories are a great teaching resource and when employ effectively, can promote thinking and new knowledge. For example, the story book Pancakes, Pancakes can be used as a resource for integrated curriculum. Through storytelling and the use of learning centres and group settings strategy, language, math and cooking are in condition(p) (Velu, 2012).Case studyChilds profileName Jason season 6 years oldGender MaleRace ChinesePreschool Little kids kindergartenSkills Able to count one to ten. Able to sort, match and oppose by one attribute (example size, shape and colour). Able to recognize basic shapes.Family background Both parents are busy with work and have bantam time for him. He has two siblings so the parents cannot give him full at tention. Parents do not communicate with him often and they often use television to nourishment him occupied.Siblings twoParents Both parents workingSpoken language EnglishActivities other than school Watch Television and play online kids gamesProblems he face in mathematicsThis child faces some difficulties in mathematics. He is not able to do more advanced principle like AAB descriptor. During class he has difficulty in number bond and he isnt able to finish his numeracy activities in class. The teacher has been trying to do one-to-one teaching such as helping him to be more familiar with manikin by re-introducing AB grade using constitution and stamp. The teacher also helps him in number bond by pairing him up with another child. However, there is little improvement and the child continues to have difficulties in mathematics. In order to help this child to improve, lessons can be conducted for both pattern and number bond. Both teacher and parents should collaborate to help Jason to improve.Lessons to help him with pattern and number bondLessons for patternThe activity is call people patterns (Big Ideas of archeozoic Mathematics, 2014). This is a visual pattern activity and the material is the children in the class. It is a simple pattern activity to help Jason to understand the basic pattern from the environment. The teacher arranges the children in AB pattern stand, sit stand, sit stand, sit. ulterior on that, the teacher can ask the children to describe the pattern. Lastly, the teacher ask questions like what is the pattern and what is its rule?. Each child takes turn to give the practise (Big Ideas of Early Mathematics, 2014). If Jason is not sure, the teacher can explain to him immediately.At the equivalent time, Jasons parents can also help Jason to reinforce his pattern knowledge at home. They can carry out activities like shape pattern. His parents can use concrete materials like plain wooden blocks of different shapes to teach him the AB pattern. For instance, trey square and three triangle blocks can be used. Then the parents can set the pattern square, triangle square, triangle square, triangle. They can ask Jason to describe the pattern and after that ask him to demonstrate the same pattern.Once Jason is more confident with the AB pattern, the teacher and parents can use the same materials and methods to introduce AAB pattern. Instead of using paper and stamp for AAB pattern activity, the teacher can try to use concrete material. after Jason has a better understanding of AAB pattern, the teacher can replace concrete materials with paper and stamp.Lessons for number bondThe first activity for the number bond can be done at home. Jasons parents can use material such as raisins to carry out the activity. For example, they can ask him how many raisins are in his hand. He is then allowed to eat some of the raisins. After that, ask him to count again. If he gets the correct answer, he is allowed to eat all the raisin s.After Jason is able to understand the number operations at home, he can go on to the number bond lesson in class. Concrete materials like small dinosaur models can be used together with the number bond worksheet. The dinosaurs can assist Jason to see the numbers using real objects. For instance, if the numbers are three and seven, the teacher can give Jason three dinosaurs first and ask him to count. Another seven dinosaurs can be habituated to him. After that ask him to count the total number of dinosaurs and he can write the answer on the worksheet. This activity can use different combination of numbers and is a good way to help Jason to understand the number bond concept better.ConclusionReferencesBeilock, S., Willingham, D. (2014). Math Anxiety nates Teachers Help Students Reduce It?. American Educator. Retrieved 10 November 2014, from http//www.aft.org/sites/default/files/periodicals/beilock.pdfBarbour, N., Seefeldt, C. (2000). Early childishness Education-An Introductio n (4th ed., pp. 449-462). new-sprung(prenominal) York Macmillan College Publishing.Big Ideas of Early Mathematics. (2014) (p. 91). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.Ginsburg, H., Lee, J., Boyd, J. Mathematics Education for Young Children What It Is and How to Promote It. Social Policy Report. Retrieved 10 November 2014, from http//srcd.org/sites/default/files/documents/21-3_early_childhood_education.pdfHighScope Educational Research Foundation,. (2011). Scaffolding Childrens Learning at Small-Group Time. Retrieved 10 November 2014, from http//www.highscope.org/file/Trainer%20Page/Preschool/1%20Day%20Workshops/W2006_11-Scaffolding%20SGT%20Booklet%20%239_press.pdfMazzocco, M. (2007). Early Predictors of Mathematical Learning Difficulties Variations In Childrens Difficulties With Math. Exchange. Retrieved 10 November 2014, from http//msdp.kennedykrieger.org/pdf/42.pdfScienceDaily,. (2013). Preschoolers inability to estimate quantity relates to later math difficulty. Retrieved 10 Novembe r 2014, from http//www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/08/130814132508.htmSmith, S. (1997). Early Childhood Mathematics (pp. 1-18). Boston Allyn Bacon.The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,. (2001). Mathematics in the Preschool. Retrieved 10 November 2014, from http//gse.buffalo.edu/org/buildingblocks/writings/preschool%20math%20in%20tcm.pdfThe National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,. (2004). A Familys tend Fostering Your Childs Success in School Mathematics. Retrieved 10 November 2014, from http//illuminations.nctm.org/uploadedFiles/Activities_Home/FamilyGuide_FullText.pdfVelu, G. (2012). Intergrating Language, Math and prep Through Storytelling. Early Educators.

The Varying Definition Of Politeness Across Cultures English Language Essay

The Varying rendering Of discretion Across Cultures position Language EssayCHAPTER 1 intro1.0 INTRODUCTION1.1 Background of the studyThe definition of tact varies crossship canal burnishs and the claims for universals have sh protest contrariety and also lack of clarity as they have received secure attention since the brown and Levinson possibility was proposed (1978, 1987). Lakoff (1989) delineate the term Polite as the use of readiness rules regardless of foretaste whereas the term non- mannerly behaviour refers to the act as of non utilize discretion rules when they be non expected. The Brown and Levinsons (BLs) modelling has contri onlyed a lot in the study of well-bredness discourse although on that point are umteen criticisms that have been made by close to interrogati unrivaledrs imputable to its lack of clarity concerning the definition of well-manneredness and concomitant concepts of across studies and inwardly the same studies (A. J. Meier, 1995) . Further much than, the BLs theory is utter to be ethnocentric because it is derived directly from the higher(prenominal) value which is based on individualism in the Western culture (Kasper, 1990 252-253) and the circumstance that their distinction between the negative and positive politeness is indefinite (Meier, 1995 384). Goffmans (1967) work has also contributed a lot in the field of politeness discourse and has become angiotensin-converting enzyme of the most signifi laughingstockt in the research of talking to use. Goffman has introduced the nonion of slope (BL, 1987 61). The BL defined the term politeness in terms of utterers need to say things which enable them to mitigate the imposition essential in speech acts and also the typesetters case that those speech acts threaten including the administration of the speaker as well as the face of others. A excuse form is a form that is used in speech by expressing a given prepositional content in lay not to offend o thers (Linde, 1988). According to Leech (1983), politeness is needed and important in the theory of linguistic pragmatics in order to explain the reasons that cause speakers to strip Grices Co-operative principles and its proverbs. Self-politeness is taken seriously in Leechs framework. The self-politeness is important in the theory of linguistic politeness because it involves the face of the speaker which break aways to be as vulnerable as the face of the hearer. This vulnerability is viewed in cardinal ways and is depict in the BL model. First, there are speech acts that threaten faces of others and speech acts that threaten the self-face. Second, the face of the speaker sack up also be attacked by the hearer simply as the face of the hearer can be attacked by the speaker in a confabulation.Brown and Levinson have devoted an entire sacred scripture of politeness although its concept is never actually defined. They focused on two types of politeness strategies which are t he negative and positive strategies that are used in order to reduce the imposition or threat to an addressees face upon the ordinance of an inherently face-threatening act. ban strategies are characterized as expressions of restraint, formality, and distancing whereas positive strategies are described as expressions of solidarity, intimacy, informality, and familiarity (A. J. Meier, 1995). These strategies focus on the positive and negative face notions. confident(p) face refers to a persons self-esteem and how he or she wants to be comprehended and accepted by the society. On the other hand, negative face refers to a persons freedom to act. Every individual has the rights to be involved in fashioning decision. Speakers have to perform various speech acts in conference and these acts tend to threaten the face of the speaker or the hearer or twain which can cause misunderstandings among them. There are five superstrategies that were proposed by the Brown and Levinson theory w hich areWithout redressive action, baldlyPositive politenessNegative discretionOff recordWithhold the FTARudeness is the contrast of the term politeness. Lakoff (1989) defined the term rude as an act that disregards politeness rules when they are in fact expected although there is no clarity in postulateing what politeness rules consist of and on what basis they are determined in order to be considered as polite (A. J. Meier,1995). An apology is an act of politeness which is utter in Holmes (1990 156) and is practiced in most cultures of the world. According to Britain (1992), high uprising t wizards which are used in declarative sentences are considered as markers of politeness in New Zealand slope. In the work of Bublitz (1980), the terms please, just, passive voice, and hang back interrogatorys are considered as the expressions of politeness. Politeness routines such(prenominal) as Thank you and Youre grateful are also essential in communication. In order not to sound r ude when speaking to others, the charm politeness strategies should be implied and practised which can avoid misunderstandings between the speakers and hearers. According to Janney and Arndt (1992), tact resembles the BLs concepts and it is important in order to avoid conflicts. Blum-Kulka (198967) on the other hand considers tact as an aspect of the appropriate polite behaviour. Kasper (1990200) argued that the strategies and means of politeness are not exactly endowed with politeness values, which creates a question mark in ones mind. If polite strategies are not always polite as what is said by her, one would wonder what qualifies them as politeness strategies to begin with. Furthermore, some would argue that there is no particular style nor particular syntactic constructions (Fraser and Nolen, 1981 Zimin, 1981) can be polite or impolite. Many would question when and where to be polite and this is when sociolinguistic competence becomes important. Sociolinguistic competence is the knowledge of appropriate language use (Joseph A. DeVito, 2008). Lakoff (1989 103) made an equate clarity with non-politeness where she chief(prenominal)tained that politeness only differs in importance depending on the discourse genre which she believed that the more transactional the interaction is, the less important politeness will be.1.2 Statement of the difficultyThe universality of politeness is yet to be clarified because politeness varies across cultures which create problems in establishing objective measures for application across cultures. In this case, misunderstandings in communication can occur when one is unaware of some other ones culture. Ehlich (1992) has warned of the dangers of ethnocentricity in determining the standards of politeness that apply to all groups whereas Hymes (198649) emphasized on the cautions of the tendencies in seeking the satisfaction of universal framework without considering the empirical inadequacy of them. Malaysia is a country tha t consists of various ethnics that have distinguishable practices, cultures and beliefs. Its biggest ethnic groups are the Malays, followed by the Chinese, Indian, and lastly the minority ethnics. Politeness is important because it can cause misunderstandings if it is not taken seriously. However, due to the culture differences politeness is viewed differently by different groups of society in Malaysia. The BLs model cannot be applied in some of these cultures because they do not seem to fulfil each others wants. Gu (1990) argued that the BLs concepts are not adequate to account for aspects of Chinese and Matsumoto (1988, 1989) argued that the BLs notion of face with its individual territorial rights cannot be applied to the Japanese since the Japanese are more concerned with positional relation to others rather than with the individual territory.Everyone has the tendency to be rude when speaking to other people and they can in fact choose to be or not to be rude whenever and where soever they want. However, does this mean that they do not know the rules of politeness? According to the BL theory of politeness, an utterance is considered polite when there is an implicature that is generated due to the impact of the conversational maxims in order to economise the face of others. An utterance can be polite even though the implicature is not. If that is so, how can someone tell when someone else meant to be polite or rude? A speakers communication competence is gibe to the degree of politeness. In order to be a suitable speaker, one must possess communicative competence which consists of four types of competencies which are grammatic competence, Sociolinguistic competence, Discourse competence, and Strategic competence. Grammatical competence is the mastery of the language and Sociolinguistic competence is the knowledge of appropriate language use. Discourse competence on the other hand means the knowledge of how to connect utterances in a text in order to mak e sure it is both(prenominal) cohesive and coherent. Finally, strategic competence refers to the mastery of the strategies used by speakers to comprehend for breakdowns in communication as well as the strategies that they use in order to enhance the effectiveness of the communications.The BLs model agreed with Grices co-operative principles and the conversational maxims which consider politeness as part of wise communication. Grices theory assumed that communication involves the intention of a speaker which is directed at a hearer and intended to be recognized (Brown and Levinson, 19877) and that communication is governed by a rational Cooperative Principle and also a number of maxims which give annul to conversational implicatures (19873). The co-operative principles emphasized four maxims which are the maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of relation, and maxim of manner which are formulated under the assumption that the parkland subroutine of the talk exchange is to be maximally efficient and reliable. If one has to follow the BLs concepts, one probably has to flout the co-operative principles. Ones utterance can be polite even if the speaker doesnt mean anything polite. One can be rude even though it is not done on purpose and one can be polite even though it is not meant. According to Grice (1957219, 1968122), in order to mean something by an utterance one must have the intention to produce some effect in an audience by means of the recognition of this intention. In short, one can choose to follow the Brown and Levinsons concepts or neglect its message to save the face of others.Interruptions are not tolerated in the English language but it is tolerated in the Italian language. It is considered rude for a person to interrupt another persons speech in the English culture. (Brian Paltridge, 2005). Interruption is also considered as a Face Threatening Act. (Jonas Pfister, 2010). For this reason, interruption is considered rude among Malaysians for example interrupting a persons conversation when he or she is not finished talking. If this is true, what about the practice of interruptions in a debate competition? One may question when and where can politeness be applied. Some would even consider interruption by permission in a conversation is tolerable. If so, one may question the accuracy of the definition of the terms rude and polite. Both competent and unentitled speakers can choose to neglect the politeness rules whenever they want and yet, they are quieten considered as competent and incompetent speakers of a language.1.3 Objectives of studyThis study seeks toTo go over the politeness practices among competent and incompetent speakers of English in Malaysia.To understand the many reasons that lead to rudeness among most incompetent and competent speakers of English in their conversations.To give guidance to incompetent and competent speakers of English in service them to understand the politeness strategies.To help us understand the needs in educating these incompetent and competent speakers of English in language usage.1.4 Research questionsThe following are the research questions for the study1.4.1 What are the factors that cause incompetent and competent speakers of English to have the tendencies to sound rude in their speeches?1.4.2 What are the ways that may help the incompetent and competent speakers of English in better their speeches?Who are responsible in helping the incompetent and competent speakers of English in improving their speeches?When and where should the incompetent and competent speakers of English be polite when having a conversation with others?Significance of the StudyThis study is important in order to help us understand about the problems faced by the incompetent and competent speakers of English in their eachday conversations. This study is also concern whether there is a need for maxim of politeness in our everyday conversation. Politeness is hardly defined due to t he lack of illuminance of its term and its definition has been argued by many researchers in their various theories of politeness. Researchers such as Lakoff (1973), Leech (1983), Kingwell (1993), Davis (1998), and Kalia (2004, 2007) believed that a maxim of politeness is needed in our everyday conversation and their views will help us to understand the deduction of the term polite. This study also explores the competent and incompetent speaker of English in Malaysias point of views of the term polite based on their own understandings and practices since politeness can differ across cultures. I will also explain why the Brown and Levinsons theory is not satisfactory and cannot be universally accepted. Through this study, a Malaysian perspective of the term polite can be explored, understood and compared.Scope of the studyThis study is conducted in Fakulti Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi (FBMK) UPM which is confined to the population of 12 selected ESL learners in Malaysia. All of the respondents are picked arbitrarily from 3 major races in Malaysia which are Malay, Chinese, and India besides. However, the natives of Sabah and Sarawak are not included.Definition of TermsFor the purpose of the study, the following terms are defined infra in order to facilitate a better understanding of the studys main concern.1.7.1 PoliteThe term polite refers to the use of politeness rules regardless of expectation (Lakoff, 1989). Besides that, an utterance is considered polite if and only if there is an implicature that is generated due to the violation of a conversational maxims because of concerns of face (Brown and Levinson, 1987).1.7.2 Non-politeThe term non-polite refers to the behaviour of not using politeness rules and yet not expected (Lakoff,1989).1.7.3 RudeThe term rude on the other hand includes the disregarding of the politeness rules when they are in fact expected (Lakoff, 1989).1.7.4 Positive FaceThe term Positive face refers to the want that the wants be desirab le to others and also the wants be approved of by others (Brown and Levinson, 1987).1.7.5 Negative FaceThe term Negative face refers to the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others. Negative politeness is said to be more polite than the positive politeness.

The Church And Apartheid In South Africa Religion Essay

The perform And Apartheid In southeast Africa faith EssayWhat started as an antecedent social forms grounded in colonial accounting passed with the outcome of Apartheid which in turn affected the southbound African church building and its hi tale. Apartheid is the differentiate which jeopardize the social edifice of the Church as it brought overmuch segregation, which led to m both critics of apartheid blaming the Church for its existence, they take for claimed that racial oppression in South Africa is the fruit of Christianity according to Hexham in his work journal The ledger of Theology for Southern AfricaThis prevail over although has for a very long fourth dimension been seen as ethical challenge to Christian theology, one cannot ignore it merely can be used a case use up which result ventures us to reflect what it mean to be one in rescuer Christ within our South African Christian Theology context. It is for this discernment that in this assignment I endeavou r to highlight some of the sBeginning of theme fellowshipAcceding to power in 1948, the National policy-making party has kept a tight grip on the reins of government perpetually since till the reign was taken by ANC in 1994. According to Dr Verkuyl, the National Party had desired to develop a racial caste transcription in which each non-white is granted limited freedom of movement exclusively only on the basis of a white monopoly of power and subordinated to the interests of the whites.It was in this period that race relations remained the key issue, there was increase in various measure of racial segregation and it was in this time that sinister consciousness and active protest became a starker reality. Therefore it was through this Party that the ideology of apartheid became the blueprint for South African society. realness Council of ChurchesIt was an amazement that the initiation of the World Council of Churches (WCC) in 1948 at Amsterdam led to tonic-made word form in the ecumenical relations not only in South Africa unspokenly alike globally. This raised high hope that any divisions in the Church of Christ would be healed and there would be comeback in relations of the church.South African churches welcome this phase and or so of churches in South Africa joined WCC and were spontaneous and cordial in their participation. These churches include the Anglicans Presbyterians Methodists the NG Churches of Cape Town and the Transvaal, and the Nederduits Hervomde Kerk in Afrika.South African delegates were direct to WCC Amsterdam in 1948 and again in 1954 to Evanston. Alan Paton of Anglican Church and Ben Marais of NG Church served in the fourteen-man commission on Church and race. These men had to get by a study and submit a continue at Evanston Conference. Marais, macrocosm one of the selected speakers in the session to represent the submission of this major report at the conference.Several South African church leaders like CB Brink, Bi shop Ambrose Reeves and WA Landman play crucial roles and were actively involved in the activities of WCC. CB Brink also served in the Central committee of WCC along with former(a) South African church leaders. The ecumenical contact built on these years had a great effects in South African and various conferences and talks surrounded by local church leaders were logical to discuss matters of mutual concern. Many South African students received bursaries from WCC to study in America and Europe.However, it was after the discussion of race relations and decision taken at the Evanston that uncertainties grew especially from the Afrikaans member churches.Cottesloe ConsultationIn 1960 the Church engaged itself in Cottesloe talks. It was through Cottesloe consultation that delegates were brought together from the World Council of Churches member churches in South Africa and outside the country and ecumenical mental home as start of start of the partners fighting the church struggle in South Africa. In these talks, the race issue and Churchs role were put infra the spotlight.After numerous days of these talks, decisions were taken which all member churches concord to, except the Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk van Afrika which stood in disagreement with these decisions. The Cottesloe findings brought so much stress and emotions since the churches were now thrust into the midst of political stresses of the country and media had these talks as their headlines zooming more on the churches reactions.This led in some churches resigning from WCC, especially the Afrikaans Reformed churches, eon the English speaking churches retained the membership in support of freedom fighters. Churches which resigned from the WCC opened Christian Institute in august 1963 in order to continue their dialogue with churches oversees. This shew provided a usable channel for communication involving people from different race and denominations. However this institute became a victim of p olitical target and thereby lost close of its supporters.Publication Message to the people of South AfricaThis publication was formulated in 1968. It focused on South African Council of Churches as spotlight and was the result of significant conference of the WCC held in Geneva in 1966 on the subject Church and Society. Theological committee was appointed so they can reckon what obedience to divinity fudge requires of the Church in her witness to her unity in Christ in South Africa. This committee had to issue the message to the Country.The excogitation of the enumeration was to demonstrate the basic incompatibility of apartheid with the gospel of savior Christ. This document also appealed to Christians in South Africa to give their obedience and their loyalty to Jesus Christ. The document was sent to every minister in the country of which 600 showed the demonstrable response and support and all the member churches of SACC subscribed to it. This led SACC world a target for a ttacks from different sides.SPROCASThe Study Project on Christianity in Apartheid Society (SPRO-CAS) was established in mid-1969 by the South African Council of Churches and the Christian Institute of Southern Africa. This document was represented after the chasm amidst the South African Council of Churches and Afrikaans-speaking churches grew wider, the South African Council of churches being attacked on every side.Included in this document were the six commissions and a diverse set of over one hundred forty commissioners and consultants, which had its focused on the need for change in South Africa, examining economics, education, law, politics, sociology and the Church. The fancy not only played a critical role in thinking within the South African churches about how to overcome apartheid but also marks a critical stage in the possess of the Black Consciousness Movement.The projects publications had to be submitted to South Africas Publication Control mount for censorship. Pla ns had to be adjusted when several of the writers, including Biko, Desmond, and Turner, were issued with banning orders prohibiting them from being quoted in any publication. Despite such difficulties the project had significant impact on political developments leading up to the Soweto student uprising in 1976.Soweto UprisingThe stain situation acquire a fresh dimension with Soweto riots in 1976, when the mysterious youth stood their ground against states educational policy and the existence of certain laws which had broken up homes, families and the ordinary life. The youth were dissatisfied, and they were no willing to accept these situations which they found themselves in. It was through this stand that Soweto gradually became the national symbol of a new generation of nationally and politically pitch blackness people awareness in our country.Black ChurchesEach of these departures from Christianity, the Ethiopian and the Zionist, dates from the beginning of previous century. The foundation of Ethiopian churches was the less drastic, as they content to break the shackles of white dominance while retaining the form of organization, mode of worship and denominational identity of the parent body, for guinea pig African Methodist and African Congregational. Nonetheless, it stemmed directly from the practice of an unacknowledged apartheid where it was least expected, from an insistence on segregation and white superiority on the part of missionaries. These churches were African replicas of Christian denominations and were an explicit response to racial inequality. rehabilitation Day WitnessIn 1980 October 31, the Reformation Day Witness was put undered. It consisted eight-spot eminent NG theologians. This publication dealt with , according to Pillay Hoymeyer(1994296) the Churchs inabilities to fulfil the mission of satisfaction and to prevent polarisation and to provide the authorities with an unambiguous witness. The witness was publish during the peri od of rapid changes in South Africa where transition led to new social and political dispensation. The witness contributed in bringing the greater willingness and desolation towards the continuing dialogue and it rose the prophetic voice of NG Church so loud and clear.In the same year in November, the appeared collections of essays entitle Stomkompas, which was composed by NG theologians which had their views. This Stomkompas had dominating the widely accepted traditional Afrikaner view on relations between people, which was biblically justified since the forties.Broederiking was also another assembly emerged from NG church. It was a group of young NG churches. They aimed at working towards greater unity among the NG churches at a local level, to render younger churches less financial dependency on the mother church and to give moral support to these churches.In 1982, Belhar denote a status of confessions on apartheid condemning it as a heresy.This was regarded as a protest by th e church against a political dispensation as it proclaimed the threat brought by apartheid to the churchs creed. It during this time that the Churh in SA were arranged by committe of every theological society in SA.Tension rose between the government and certain churches in the 80sKairos DocumentThe Kairos Document (KD) is a rehearsal within the background of theology issued in 1985 by a group of black South African theologians based predominantly in the black community of Soweto. The statement challenged the churches response to what the authors saw as the vicious policies of the Apartheid state under the state of emergency declared on 21 July 1985. In July 1985 the iron fist of the first state of emergency came down hard upon the people of South Africas townships. Many were killed, injured, maimed for life or locked up in detention. The KD evoked strong reactions and furious debates not only in South Africa, but world-wide.The KD was compiled in five chapters The Moment of Truth judge of State Theology Critique of Church Theology Towards a fateful Theology Challenge to Action and a short conclusion. The document was intercommunicate to the divided churches divided, that is, due to the roles that Christians within the churches play in the conflict between the racist minority government and the black majority population. The KD document contended against apartheid ashes using the comparison from the book of Romans, Revelation and even Acts it presented this system as unjustly ad not lawful. In time where discord was in place, this document really served as a challenge to many ministers and church members of different churches to reflect once again where they stand.The period of 1990 onwardsNelson Rolihlahla Mandela has been in prison for over a quarter of a century since overbearing 5, 1962 for leadership of his people in the struggle against racist oppression and for a non-racial democratic society.Prison bars could not prevent him from continuing to propel his people to struggle and sacrifice for their liberation. Public opinion polls have again and again shown that he is the most popular leader in the country. He has, indeed, grown in stature. As the Commonwealth Eminent Persons class observed in 1986, he has become a living legend, voltaic the resistance in the country. The London Times described him as the demon of African nationalism in South Africa.It was in after the 1990 that there seem to be a break of segregation, and thank to all the church who participated in the struggle of this liberation. In 1994 was the beginning of new things for the nation of South Africa.ConclusionThe story of the Christian Churches in South Africa, like the story of South African society in general is the story of many tribes, whose histories are on the one hand interwoven and interconnected and services us not make the same mistake as the church of segregation, it help us to strive to a bridge gap to any discord, quite of being a wall s tanding in the gap for God to move in our country. With such richful history, we are collaped to higher height, even article of belief the future theologian of way forward because eventually we had conquered APARTHED.

Spin Cycle :: essays research papers

SPIN CYCLE&9With so numerous different scandal to his credit and numerous ongoinginvestigations pending, President Clinton has been bombarded by the media in afashion not seen since the last days of the Nixon administration. disrespect thisunwanted attention, Clinton has managed to maintain lofty approval ratings andsuccess totaly deflect yet the most ardent attacks. How does he do it? Thisquestion is answered in full in Spin Cycle, a backroom look at how parole iscreated and incase in the White House and the methods utilize to distribute itto the public. In motion-picture show a detailed picture of the hand-to-hand combat cognizeas a press conference, Kurtz shows how the use of controlled leaks, meticulouslyworded briefs, and the outright avoidance of certain(a) questions allows the WhiteHouse to control the scope and content of the stories that make it to the front endpage and the nightly network news. As Kurtz makes clear, the president andFirst bird are convinced that the media are out to get them, while the journalists finishing the White House are constantly frustrated at the hinder and the lack of cooperation they encounter while trying to do their jobs. In the center field is the White House press secretary Mike McCurry, a professional person at defusing volatile situations and walking the fine line with the press. though less paranoid and cynical of the media than Clinton, he often finds himself on some(prenominal) ends of personal attacks and vendettas that veer far outside the arena of objective reporting. The anecdotes and guardedly buried information that Kurtz has uncovered give this book a dashing pace, along with ample invaluable information that cuts to the core of this age of media overkill.&9Kurtz focuses mainly on White House response to scandal news in 1996and 1997, and he does not purport to cover most other aspects of the relationship between the president and the press. And within the narrow scope of his research, he had only fragmentary access to important information. For legal and political reasons, smock House aides were probably not inclined to volunteer the square truth. Whats more, the story is still unfolding. Though he adds nothing to what is known about recent happenings in the Oval Office, he does shed devolve on a subject that remains of considerable importance the techniques used by the Clinton administration to shape the way it is portrayed in the press. It never seriously takes up the issue that seems to lie at its core.

Style and its Relationship to Good Writing Essay -- Writing Education

Style and its Relationship to Good Writing Style. Its a small word that packs a powerful punch, and most sources do not stop to think astir(predicate) what it truly means. Initially, I thought personal manner was a personal element in writing specific to the writer and to change this personalized style of writing was absolutely forbidden. However, through our straighten out exploration of the two style manuals, Style Toward Clarity and Grace and The Elements of Style, this accredited definition was challenged, and eventually changed based on the compelling evidence. Contrary to usual belief, style is not specific to ones writing it is overmuch more involved than that. This notion of style takes into consideration the reader and the console of the reading material. So, it is not selfish, it is actually focused on the reader and determine the thoughts and considerations of the earshot. With this in mind, it is important to apply it personally to ones cause wr iting by changing the perspective about what you, as the writer, argon trying to say and take a step back, critically count at your writing and wonder about how it will affect your audition and what they will walk away with. Now that there is an understanding about what style actually means, a quick analysis of severally schoolbook is in order. Both books are style manuals, separately with the purpose of educating writers to be better writers. However, their approaches are vastly different, and its important to explore separately manual to see how, in some cases, they compliment and contradict each(prenominal) other. To better appreciate different teaching techniques and explore which one should be used based on the goals of the writer a study of each of the writing stylebooks is in order. The first impor... ...adability of the text and a concern for the audience that is reading the writing piece. It is about well-written work that is not personalized with each writer, its more general. Manuals are written because there is a direct for writers to write more clearly and with style. Each one has its elements of positive and ostracise and it is the ultimate responsibility of the writer to incorporate the information found indoors these manuals to assist with readability ease and style. Works CitedHaas, Christine, http//people.emich.edu/chaas/, appointee accessed March 3, 2004McGahey, Michelle, http//people.emich.edu/mmcgahey/eng328/, date accessed March 4, 2004Strunk Jr., William and E.B. White The Elements of Style. 4th ed. New York Longman, Inc., 2000.Williams, Joseph M. Style Toward Clarity and Grace. cabbage University of Chicago Press, 1990.

I Hate Decisions Essay -- Personal Narrative, essay about myself

When I decide to go out to eat, I mostly have picked out where I postulate to go and what I want to order before I leave home. Nevertheless, when I arrive at the restaurant, my look races in circles. Should I get what I was craving on the way here, or should I get what is on special? Should I try something new and different, or should I get one of my venerable favorites? Should I get it Supersized? For here or to go? Do I want the soup or salad? Should I get something to drink or for dessert? What would go best with the main course? After excruciating over all of my choices, I usually just end up following my gut instinct and ordering what I had in mind on the way to the restaurant. Decisions have always tended to come difficult for me, rangy or small. Similar to selecting a meal at a restaurant, I have an extremely difficult time choosing a major at college. Since grade school, I have dreamed of becoming a schoolteacher. I had always envied their big desk, red pens , and superior knowledge. However, as I grew older, I became increasingly aware of how expensive college ...

“Answering Jewish Objections to Jesus: Theological Objections” :: Religion, Jewish Apologetics

In his twinkling volume on Judaic apologetics, Michael Brown answers twenty eight Jewish theological objections. Brown summarizes this book in his preface Theological objections, enured at length in the current volume, cut to the heart of the differences among handed-down Judaism and the Messianic Jewish/delivererian faith. They revolved around the character of immortal (the Trinity, the deity of Jesus, the person of the Holy Spirit), the nature of man and the fate for salvation, and sin and the means of atonement. In sum, these objections claim, The religion of the New Testament is a completely foreign religion that is not only un-Jewish but is alike unfaithful to the Hebrew Bible. With regard to cutting to the heart of the differences between traditional Judaism and Messianic Jewish/Christian faith, I really appreciate the expression Michael Brown demonstrated in a scholarly and balanced manner that the Christian faith was perfectly compatible with the Jewish Tanakh. His discussion on the Trinity (the Tri-unity) was excellent. He demonstrated that the Hebrew word for one, echad, does not ineluctably reach to absolute unity and, in fact, could very well refer to compound unity (Page 4). He provides examples from the Hebrew Bible where echad is used of a compound or complex unity as per the oneness of go game and Eve, the many components of the tabernacle being one unified tabernacle, and the one ground of Israel which is made up of hundreds of thousands of people (5). I loved the way he backed up his discussion of the Shema as referring the concept of uniqueness (Deut. 64) by citing the New Jewish Publication Society Version Hear, O Israel The LORD is our God, the LORD alone (page 6) Brown demonstrated the deity of Christ by focusing on Him as the Son of God and explicate of God, who shares in the master nature, and who revealed Himself to His people in the Old Testament (15-37). I enjoyed Browns treatment of the apparent conflict between the p assages which hold that no one has seen God with the other passages which clearly state that God was seen by Abraham, Moses, and Jacob (27-34). As he put it, it is Jesus the Messiahthe divine Son, the image of the invisible God, the Word made flesh, the exact representation of the baffles beingwho solves the riddle and explains how someone could really see God, as yet though God cannot be seen.

Essay examples --

Gauchers affection is a human metabolic indisposition. different names for the malady are glucocerebrosidase deficiency, Gaucher splenomegaly, glucocerebrosidosis, or glucosyl cerebroside lipidosis. The disease is caused when someone lacks the enzyme called glucocerebrosidase. though Gauchers disease is very rare, it most commonly occurs in stack of Eastern and Central European Jewish heritage. It affects 1 in vitamin D to 1,000 people of Jewish decent, and very rarely in other backgrounds. It is an patrimonial disease in the autosomal recessive pattern. Both parents have to be carriers of the genetic mutation for their children to develop the disease (U.S National Library of Medicine). Gauchers disease is passed down from generation to generation. A person can find the disease if both of their parents carry a recessive copy of the gene. If someone only gets one recessive copy then that means that they are a carrier. A carrier has the capability of pass the disease on to th eir children though they do not have Gauchers disease. Gauchers disease (pronounced go-shayz) is a hereditary disease dealing with metabolism. It is known as a lysosomal storage deficiency. Mutations of the GBA gene cause Gauchers disease. The mutation causes toxic levels of glucocerebrosidase to hit up within the cells. A person with the disease lacks the enzyme that gets rid of throwaway(prenominal) substances in the cell so the buildup becomes a problem. It occurs when the lipid, or fat, glucosylceramide accumulates to an unhealthy enumerate in certain organs in the body. These organs include the liver, lungs, spleen, and peradventure the central nervous system or brain. People who have Gauchers disease dont all experience the same symptoms. ordinarily the first symptom is an enlarged s... ...in Zavesca that helps patients. This is the only approved oral practice of medicine for patients with type 1 Gauchers disease. Zavesca is only for people who cannot get enzyme succes sor therapy. This form of treatment may cause serious side effects. array effects of Zavesca include diarrhea, weight loss, neurologic problems, and low platelet count. (ZAVESCA)Gauchers disease was first described by a French checkup student named Phillipe Charles Ernest Gaucher in 1882. Gaucher treated a woman whose spleen was enlarged. He later found that it was the cells that were swollen and not her spleen as a whole. Medical communities have continued to advance in understanding of the disease in the century. Doctors and scientists are working to fully understand Gauchers disease so that one day we can have a restore to save the many lives that have been lost to this metabolic disorder.